Illustration: Battery performance depends on nanoscale material behavior and large-scale supply chains.
Anodes
Graphite remains dominant because it is stable, conductive, and compatible with high-volume manufacturing. Silicon can store more lithium but expands substantially during cycling.
Cathodes
Cathode materials determine much of the voltage, energy density, cost, and thermal behavior. Iron phosphate, nickel-rich layered oxides, manganese spinels, and cobalt-rich oxides serve different markets.
Electrolytes and separators
Liquid electrolytes transport ions while separators prevent short circuits. Solid electrolytes aim to improve safety and enable lithium-metal anodes, but manufacturability remains difficult.